Innovation in the U.S. — from semiconductors and the internet to GPS and touchscreen technology — originated in military or defense-related R&D, often through DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) or similar institutions. This form of state-backed innovation is obscured behind the language of "national security" and military procurement, but it has fueled massive civilian tech ecosystems.

Apple, Google, and others built on decades of public investment that was:

• Funded by the state

• Directed through defense contracts or university research

• Later privatized and commercialized

As Mariana Mazzucato argues, the state doesn’t just “fix markets” — it creates them. But the way this value is captured is asymmetrical: the public takes the risk, the private sector takes the reward.