The UN Genocide Convention (1948) has been applied primarily in major international criminal tribunals and ICJ state disputes. Its core requires specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group (national, ethnical, racial, or religious) through one or more of the five acts in Article II.

Major Convictions and Findings

• Rwanda (ICTR, 1994 Genocide): The most comprehensive application. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) delivered the first genocide convictions. Jean-Paul Akayesu was convicted in 1998 for genocide, including through rape and causing serious bodily/mental harm (Article II(b)). The tribunal interpreted "conditions of life" (Article II(c)) broadly: subsistence diets, expulsion from homes, reduced medical services, lack of housing/clothing/hygiene, excessive work, and even rape as contributing factors. Mass killings were central, but supporting acts (sexual violence, destruction of group identity) were key.
• Srebrenica, Bosnia (ICTY and ICJ): The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted individuals (e.g., Radislav Krstić, Radovan Karadžić, Ratko Mladić) for genocide specifically at Srebrenica (1995), where ~8,000 Bosniak men and boys were executed. This was ruled as intent to destroy a substantial part of the Bosniak group in that area. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the 2007 Bosnia v. Serbia case confirmed genocide occurred at Srebrenica (killings + serious harm under II(a) and (b)) but found Serbia responsible only for failure to prevent and punish, not commission. Broader Bosnian atrocities (1992–95) were not ruled genocide.
• Other acts beyond immediate mass killing:
  • Causing serious bodily or mental harm (II(b)): Includes torture, rape (as in Rwanda), and systematic trauma intended to destroy group viability.
  • Conditions of life (II(c)): Tribunals have cited starvation/subsistence diets, denial of medical care, forced displacement, destruction of homes/cultural sites, and blockades. Examples appear in ICTR jurisprudence and recent allegations (e.g., reports on Azerbaijan’s blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh/Artsakh as potentially meeting II(c)).
  • Preventing births (II(d)): Forced sterilization or measures to reduce group reproduction.
  • Forcibly transferring children (II(e)): Cultural destruction via assimilation (e.g., historical allegations against indigenous groups in some national contexts, though fewer international convictions).

Other Notable or Alleged Applications

• Khmer Rouge in Cambodia (ECCC): Convictions for genocide against Cham Muslims and Vietnamese minorities, involving killings plus other destructive acts.
• Ongoing/Recent ICJ Cases (state responsibility under the Convention):
  • The Gambia v. Myanmar (Rohingya): Allegations of killings, rape, and conditions of life (expulsions, village burnings).
  • South Africa v. Israel (Gaza): Allegations involving killings, harm, and conditions of life (siege, aid restrictions).
  • Ukraine v. Russia: Allegations including child transfers (II(e)) and other acts.
  • Others involve Armenia/Azerbaijan, etc.